Precis for two articles or write a good topic you think Essay

Precis for two articles or write a good topic you think - Essay Example The most vulnerable areas can be acquired and be managed at a cheaper cost compared the involved costs for all reserve regions. This is because of lower prices in the regions and the total cost for the threatened regions is estimated at $ 4 billion as compared to the total $ 30 billion for protection of all reserve areas. Protecting the areas is also feasible because most of the pressure to the threats is external. This means that change in domestic policies by the affected nations can facilitate protection. Demands by external forces such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund are examples of the forces that enhance irresponsible domestic activities to degradation of biodiversity. The institutions promote depletion of resources. The authors also recommend centralization of conservation research and management centers because of the success that such centrally managed institutions have achieved in developed countries. An integrated approach of protection and minimization o f harm is recommended as a solution in the environment where information on biodiversity and involved threat is available but the society has still failed to protect the environment from degradation. The article therefore offers a concern and immediate need for environmental conservation with hope of success (Pimm, et. al. 2207, 2208). The authors suggest possible extinction in the contemporary world because of the suspected interference with the environment whose adverse effects to biodiversity can be compared to previously five extinctions over the past 540 million years. Human activities whose effects include killing of biotic factors and variation of climate and habitats cause this and recovery is likely to take millions of years. Even though historical data, from fossils, and contemporary data are however biased and inaccurate and can misinform positions on extinction, a mass decrease in number of species, 75

Discuss the key features of effective corporate decision making and Essay

Discuss the key features of effective corporate decision making and assess how well these are being applied in an organisation y - Essay Example ...................................... 5 Learning from mistakes................................................................................. 6 Cultural sensitivity........................................................................................ 7 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 9 References................................................................................................................ 10 Executive Summary Effective decision-making is based on several qualities. These qualities include: innovativeness, diversification, learning from mistakes, and cultural sensitivity. Innovativeness is based on the ability to come up with new products and to market these products successfully. Diversification is based on the ability of the company to market different products and not be concentrated on only one or a few products. Learning from mistakes is about making the adjustments a fter issues in application and decision making have been seen. Cultural sensitivity, on the other hand, is about considering the culture of the corporation and making decisions based on such culture. In relation to Apple Corporation, they were able to meet these elements when they established various innovations and were able to establish a diverse market. They also learned from their mistakes throughout the years and re-employed Steve Jobs to reinvigorate the company. As a result, they have risen among the ranks of the most profitable and powerful corporations in the world. Corporate Decision-making Introduction Successful and effective corporations have distinct qualities and decision-making processes which often help them occupy such positions of success. These features are often distinctive to each corporation, based on their goals, activities, marketing, as well as the qualities of their consumers. This essay shall evaluate literature in order to establish the key features of e ffective corporate decision-making and assess how well these are being applied in an organization I know well. It will first present several studies and literature on effective practices of corporations in their decision-making activities. It will then discuss the application of such practices to Apple Corporation. Lastly, a summary and conclusion will evaluate the different elements being discussed in this paper on corporate decision-making. This essay is being carried out in order to establish a clear and well supported assessment of corporate decision-making, including the qualities which make for successful practice. Body Innovativeness In the current age of high stakes competition among businesses, various strategies and features are apparent for corporations seeking and keeping success. One of the qualities seen among these successful corporations is that they are major innovators (Morris, Kuratko and Covin, 2010). Successful corporations are distinctly set apart because of th e innovations they seem to constantly introduce into the market. In a paper by Uotila et al. (2009), they discuss that in order for corporations to be successful, they need to balance exploration and exploitation activities. In effect, as they explore and establish various innovations, they also need to temper their impact on society and on the environment. Their power to introduce new products and to explore new activities is at the very forefront of their success, and their ability to minimize their impact on the environment and on society is also a required

Change in Management and Leadership Style Essay

Change in Management and Leadership Style - Essay Example This essay examines the leadership and management structures within the company’s human resource approach to the establishment of Virgin Galactic business venture. Leadership and Management The main human resource related issue within the Virgin Atlantic structure is the company’s approach to the Galactic Project. The Galactic Project is the company’s mission to establish commercial trips to suborbital space stations. The mission began in 2004 and has been in development since this period. The spacecraft flights are intended to be robust and affordable to the extent that they can take passengers in a relatively affordable way ($200,000 per passenger). The space flight will overlap the Earth’s atmosphere in a suborbital way flight. Passengers will experience a brief period of weightlessness – 6 minutes – where passengers will be able to detach themselves from their seats. In considering the key business challenges within this organizational pr ogram, it’s clear that there are a wide variety of leadership and management elements that must be considered. While a comprehensive articulation of these elements would require an analysis as large scale as Sir Richard Branson’s space flight operation, this report functions to consider the issue from an overarching perspective. Within this context of understanding, the first major consideration is the Virgin Galactic overriding business structure. In examining this element, the Burke Litwin model of organizational change is implemented in gaining a greater management understanding. In terms of the Burke Litwin model, there are twelve major organizational areas of consideration, with management structure being an important area of concern (Burke 2011). The Virgin Galactic management structure is currently noted as consisting of CEO and President George Whitesides, Stephen Attenborough as the Commercial Director, and Jonathan Firth as the Director of Operations & Projec ts (‘Our Team’ 2010). Another prominent aspect of the Burke Litwin model is the investigation into organizational culture. In terms of organizational culture Virgin Atlantic has gained a reputation for both innovation and efficiency. In addition to these elements, perhaps because of its flamboyant president, the company has also gained a reputation for sensationalism (Manning 2011). While such an organizational culture creates a progressive and creative atmosphere, for the implementation of large-scale experimental practices one can argue that such a practice is detrimental to company success. The Burke Litwin model also considers the nature of the external environment. In these regards, this specific business challenge faces competition from a number of competing space airliners. There is also concern over increased government regulations. Another major business analysis model is the McKinsey 7S Framework. This framework considers the interaction of seven components to , â€Å"Improve the performance of a company† and â€Å"Determine how best to implement a proposed strategy†. Within the context of this analytic tool are the hard elements of ‘strategy, structure, and systems’. Currently, the business venture’s organizational structure functions within the Virgin empire, yet involves a partnership with aerospace designing firm Scales Composites. Similarly, CEO and President

Digital Cinema Review and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Digital Cinema Review and Analysis - Essay Example The effects used in Gravity are simply astonishing as they hit the viewers emotionally, spiritually, and psychologically. The director, Cuaron, has used his signature style for this movie which is the technique of using long shots. The camera and shooting techniques of the movie have greatly contributed in making it a visually appealing movie and along with that, these techniques have helped in depicting the story and the concepts of the movie pretty well. Gravity tends to be a weighty movie which means that the script had been prepared over a course of five years and the direction of the film only became possible with the new techniques of lighting, shooting, and directing which marked a new era of fictional film making. The story is about a medical researcher who is self-alienated from the community of humans and the Earth. Eventually she is put all alone in space for great stretches of time. Space is an important aspect and metaphor for the film which helps the characters to explore themselves and struggle for survival. In space, in the weightlessness, the inaction of an individual’s personality becomes a physical force. The movie shows many cocoons for survival including ships, stations, and spacesuits which challenge the stark deadliness for an unprotected human of the universe. The space aspect brings in an emotional theme where it is shown that humans can take the Earth’s environment into space in little bits and pieces but the Mother Planet has immense gravity which attracts the human to come back home. There are also physics concepts which come in this theme when the researcher is given deadly barriers to cross making her life-giving atmosphere a threat (Hughes 1). This story is between the Earth and space and in order to bring the heavy story back down to the Earth into the hearts of the audience, the director has used 90

Change in Management and Leadership Style Essay

Change in Management and Leadership Style - Essay Example This essay examines the leadership and management structures within the company’s human resource approach to the establishment of Virgin Galactic business venture. Leadership and Management The main human resource related issue within the Virgin Atlantic structure is the company’s approach to the Galactic Project. The Galactic Project is the company’s mission to establish commercial trips to suborbital space stations. The mission began in 2004 and has been in development since this period. The spacecraft flights are intended to be robust and affordable to the extent that they can take passengers in a relatively affordable way ($200,000 per passenger). The space flight will overlap the Earth’s atmosphere in a suborbital way flight. Passengers will experience a brief period of weightlessness – 6 minutes – where passengers will be able to detach themselves from their seats. In considering the key business challenges within this organizational pr ogram, it’s clear that there are a wide variety of leadership and management elements that must be considered. While a comprehensive articulation of these elements would require an analysis as large scale as Sir Richard Branson’s space flight operation, this report functions to consider the issue from an overarching perspective. Within this context of understanding, the first major consideration is the Virgin Galactic overriding business structure. In examining this element, the Burke Litwin model of organizational change is implemented in gaining a greater management understanding. In terms of the Burke Litwin model, there are twelve major organizational areas of consideration, with management structure being an important area of concern (Burke 2011). The Virgin Galactic management structure is currently noted as consisting of CEO and President George Whitesides, Stephen Attenborough as the Commercial Director, and Jonathan Firth as the Director of Operations & Projec ts (‘Our Team’ 2010). Another prominent aspect of the Burke Litwin model is the investigation into organizational culture. In terms of organizational culture Virgin Atlantic has gained a reputation for both innovation and efficiency. In addition to these elements, perhaps because of its flamboyant president, the company has also gained a reputation for sensationalism (Manning 2011). While such an organizational culture creates a progressive and creative atmosphere, for the implementation of large-scale experimental practices one can argue that such a practice is detrimental to company success. The Burke Litwin model also considers the nature of the external environment. In these regards, this specific business challenge faces competition from a number of competing space airliners. There is also concern over increased government regulations. Another major business analysis model is the McKinsey 7S Framework. This framework considers the interaction of seven components to , â€Å"Improve the performance of a company† and â€Å"Determine how best to implement a proposed strategy†. Within the context of this analytic tool are the hard elements of ‘strategy, structure, and systems’. Currently, the business venture’s organizational structure functions within the Virgin empire, yet involves a partnership with aerospace designing firm Scales Composites. Similarly, CEO and President

Hindustani classical music Essay Example for Free

Hindustani classical music Essay The tradition was born out of a cultural synthesis of several musical traditions: the Vedic chant tradition, dating back to more than three thousand years ago,the ancient Persian tradition of Musiqi-e assil, and various folk traditions prevalent in the region. It is traditional for performers who have reached a distinguished level of achievement to be awarded titles of respect; Hindus are usually referred to as pandit and Muslims as ustad. An aspect of Hindustani music going back to Sufi times is the tradition of religious neutrality: Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities, and vice versa. Around the 12th century, Hindustani classical music diverged from what eventually came to be identified as Carnatic classical music. The central notion in both these systems is that of a melodic mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. The tradition dates back to the ancient Samaveda, (sÄ ma meaning ritual chant), which deals with the norms for chanting of srutis or hymns such as the Rig Veda. These principles were refined in the musical treatises Natya Shastra, by Bharata (2nd–3rd century CE), and Dattilam (probably 3rd–4th century CE). In medieval times, the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of Sufi composers like Amir Khusro, and later in the Moghul courts. Noted composers such as Tansen flourished, along with religious groups like the Vaishnavites. After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different gharanas patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called ragas, into a number of thaats. Indian classical music has seven basic notes with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale. Unlike the 12-note scale in Western music, the base frequency of the scale is not fixed, and intertonal gaps (temperament) may also vary; however, with the gradual replacement of the sarangi by the harmonium, an equal tempered scale is increasingly used. The performance is set to a melodic pattern called a raga characterized in part by specific ascent (aroha) and descent (avaroha) sequences, which may not be identical. Other characteristics include king (vadi) and queen (samavadi) notes and characteristic phrases (pakad). In addition each raga has its natural register (ambit) and portamento (meend) rules. Performances are usually marked by considerable improvisation within these norms. History Music was first formalized in India in connection with preserving the sruti texts, primarily the four vedas, which are seen as apaurasheya (meaning not created by man). Not only was the text important, but also the manner in which they had been enunciated by the immortals. Prosody and chanting were thus of great importance, and were enshrined in the two vedangas (bodies of knowledge) called shiksha (pronunciation, chants) and chhandas (prosody); these remained a key part of the brahmanic educational system till modern times. The formal aspects of the chant are delineated in the Samaveda, with certain aspects, e.g. the relation of chanting to meditation, elaborated in the Chandogya Upanishad (ca. 8th century BC). Priests involved in these ritual chants were called samans and a number of ancient musical instruments such as the conch (shankh), lute (veena), flute (bansuri), trumpets and horns were associated with this and later practices of ritual singing. Sanskritic tradition The Samaveda outlined the ritual chants for singing the verses of the Rigveda, particularly for offerings of Soma. It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, krusht, pratham, dwitiya, tritiya, chaturth, mandra and atiswÄ r. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed-frequency instrument. This is why the second note is called pratham (meaning first, i.e., produced when only the first hole is closed). Music is dealt with extensively in the Valmiki Ramayana. Narada is an accomplished musician, as is Ravana; Saraswati with her veena is the goddess of music. Gandharvas are presented as spirits who are musical masters, and the gandharva style looks to music primarily for pleasure, accompanied by the soma rasa. In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Naga king Ashvatara asks to know the svaras from Saraswati. The most important text on music in the ancient canon is Bharatas Natya Shastra, composed around the 3rd century CE. The Natya Shastra deals with the different modes of music, dance, and drama, and also the emotional responses (rasa) they are expected to evoke. The scale is described in terms of 22 micro-tones, which can be combined in clusters of four, three, or two to form an octave. While the term raga is articulated in the Natya Shastra (where its meaning is more literal, meaning colour or mood), it finds a clearer expression in what is called jati in the Dattilam, a text composed shortly after or around the same time as Natya Shastra. The Dattilam is focused on gandharva music and discusses scales (swara), defining a tonal framework called grama in terms of 22 micro-tonal intervals (sruti[3]) comprising one octave. It also discusses various arrangements of the notes (murchhana), the permutations and combinations of note-sequences (tanas), and alankara or elaboration. Dattilam categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called jati, which are the fundamental melodic structures similar to the r aga. The names of the jatis reflect regional origins, for example andhri and oudichya. Music also finds mention in a number of texts from the Gupta period; Kalidasa mentions several kinds of veena (Parivadini, Vipanchi), as well as percussion instruments (mridang), the flute (vamshi) and conch (shankha). Music also finds mention in Buddhist and Jain texts from the earliest periods of the Christian era. Naradas Sangita Makarandha treatise, from about 1100 CE, is the earliest text where rules similar to those of current Hindustani classical music can be found. Narada actually names and classifies the system in its earlier form before the Persian influences introduced changes in the system. Jayadevas Gita Govinda from the 12th century was perhaps the earliest musical composition sung in the classical tradition called Ashtapadi music. In the 13th century, Sharngadeva composed the Sangita Ratnakara, which has names such as the turushka todi (Turkish todi), revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture. This text is the last to be mentioned by both the Carnatic and the Hindustani traditions and is often thought to date the divergence between the two. Medieval period: Persian influence The advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over northern India caused considerable cultural interchange. Increasingly, musicians received patronage in the courts of the new rulers, who in their turn, started taking increasing interest in local music forms. While the initial generations may have been rooted in cultural traditions outside India, they gradually adopted many aspects from their kingdoms which retained the traditional Hindu culture. This helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like qawwali and khyal. The most influential musician of the Delhi Sultanate period was Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), sometimes called the father of modern Hindustani classical music.[4] A composer in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, as well as Braj Bhasha, he is credited with systematizing many aspects of Hindustani music, and also introducing several ragas such as Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf and Sarpada. He created the qawwali genre, which fuses Persian melody and beat on a dhrupad like structure. A number of instruments (such as the sitar and tabla) were also introduced in his time. Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with the origins of the khyal form, but the record of his compositions do not appear to support this. The compositions by the court musician Sadarang in the court of Muhammad Shah bear a closer affinity to the modern khyal. They suggest that while khyal already existed in some form, Sadarang may have been the father of modern khyal. Much of the musical forms innovated by these pioneers merged with the Hindu tradition, composed in the popular language of the people (as opposed to Sanskrit) in the work of composers like Kabir or Nanak. This can be seen as part of a larger Bhakti tradition, (strongly related to the Vaishnavite movement) which remained influential across several centuries; notable figures include Jayadeva (11th century), Vidyapati (fl. 1375 CE), Chandidas ( 14th–15th century), and Meerabai (1555–1603 CE). As the Mughal Empire came into closer contact with Hindus, especially under Jalal ud-Din Akbar, music and dance also flourished. In particular, the musician Tansen introduced a number of innovations, including ragas and particular compositions. Legend has it that upon his rendition of a night-time raga in the morning, the entire city fell under a hush and clouds gathered in the sky, and that he could light fires by singing the raga Deepak, which is supposed to be composed of notes in high octaves. At the royal house of Gwalior, Raja Mansingh Tomar (1486–1516 CE) also participated in the shift from Sanskrit to the local idiom (Hindi) as the language for classical songs. He himself penned several volumes of compositions on religious and secular themes, and was also responsible for the major compilation, the Mankutuhal (Book of Curiosity), which outlined the major forms of music prevalent at the time. In particular, the musical form known as dhrupad saw considerable development in his court and remained a strong point of the Gwalior gharana for many centuries. After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Lucknow, Patiala, and Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as gharanas. Many musician families obtained large grants of land which made them self sufficient, at least for a few generations (e.g. the Sham Chaurasia gharana). Meanwhile the Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to develop and interact with the different gharanas and groups. Modern era Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music was imparted on a one-on-one basis through the guru-shishya (mentor-protà ©gà ©) tradition. This system had many benefits, but also several drawbacks; in many cases, the shishya had to spend most of his time serving his guru with a hope that the guru might teach him a cheez (piece or nuance) or two. In addition, the system forced the music to be limited to a small subsection of the Indian community. To a large extent it was limited to the palaces and dance halls. It was shunned by the intellectuals, avoided by the educated middle class, and in general looked down upon as a frivolous practice.[5] Then a fortunate turn of events started the renaissance of Hindustani classical music. First, as the power of the maharajahs and nawabs declined in early 20th century, so did their patronage. With the expulsion of Wajid Ali Shah to Calcutta after 1857, the Lucknavi musical tradition came to influence the music of renaissance in Bengal, giving rise to the tradition of Ragpradhan gan around the turn of the century. Also, at the turn of the century, two great stars emerged on the horizon: Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Independent of each other, they spread Hindustani classical music to the masses in general, and the Marathi middle class in particular. These two gentlemen brought classical music to the masses by organizing music conferences, starting schools, teaching music in class-rooms, and devising a standardized grading and testing system, and by standardizing the notation system.[6] Vishnu Digambar Paluskar emerged as a talented musician and organizer despite having been blinded at age 12. His books on music, as well as the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya music school that he opened in Lahore in 1901, helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system. Paluskars contemporary (and occasional rival) Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande recognized the many rifts that had appeared in the structure of Indian classical music. He undertook extensive research visits to a large number of gharanas, Hindustani as well as Carnatic, collecting and comparing compositions. Between 1909 and 1932, he produced the monumental four-volume work Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi,[7] which suggested a transcription for Indian music, and described the many tradi tions in this notation. Finally,mit consolidated the many musical forms of Hindustani classical music into a number of thaats (modes), subsequent to the Melakarta system that reorganized Carnatic tradition in the 17th century. The ragas as they exist today were consolidated in this landmark work, although there are some inconsistencies and ambiguities in Bhatkandes system. In modern times, the government-run All India Radio, Bangladesh Betar and Radio Pakistan helped to bring the artists to public attention, countering the loss of the patronage system. The first star was Gauhar Jan, whose career was born out of Fred Gaisbergs first recordings of Indian music in 1902. With the advance of films and other public media, musicians started to make their living through public performances. As India was exposed to Western music, some Western melodies started merging with classical forms, especially in popular music. A number of Gurukuls, such as that of Alauddin Khan at Maihar, flourished. In more modern times, corporate support has also been forthcoming, as at the ITC Sangeet Research Academy. Meanwhile, Hindustani classical music has become popular across the world through the influence of artists such as Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan. Principles of Hindustani music The rhythmic organization is based on rhythmic patterns called tala. The melodic foundations are called ragas. One possible classification of ragas is into melodic modes or parent scales, known as thaats, under which most ragas can be classified based on the notes they use. Thaats may consist of up to seven scale degrees, or swara. Hindustani musicians name these pitches using a system called Sargam, the equivalent of the Western movable do solfege: Sa (Shadaj) = Do Re (Rishab) = Re Ga (Gandhar) = Mi Ma (Madhyam) = Fa Pa (Pancham) = So Dha (Dhaivat) = La Ni (Nishad) = Ti Sa (Shadaj) = Do Both systems repeat at the octave. The difference between sargam and solfege is that re, ga, ma, dha, and ni can refer to either Natural (shuddha) or altered Flat (komal) or Sharp (tivra) versions of their respective scale degrees. As with movable do solfege, the notes are heard relative to an arbitrary tonic that varies from performance to performance, rather than to fixed frequencies, as on a xylophone. The fine intonational differences between different instances of the same swara are called srutis. The three primary registers of Indian classical music are mandra (lower), madhya (middle) and taar (upper). Since the octave location is not fixed, it is also possible to use provenances in mid-register (such as mandra-madhya or madhya-taar) for certain ragas. A typical rendition of Hindustani raga involves two stages: Alap: a rhythmically free improvisation on the rules for the raga in order to give life to the raga and flesh out its characteristics. The alap is followed by a long slow-tempo improvisation in vocal music, or by the jod and jhala in instrumental music. Bandish or Gat: a fixed, melodic composition set in a specific raga, performed with rhythmic accompaniment by a tabla or pakhavaj. There are different ways of systematizing the parts of a composition. For example: Sthaayi: The initial, rondo phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition. Antara: The first body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition. Sanchaari: The third body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in dhrupad bandishes Aabhog: The fourth and concluding body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in Dhrupad bandishes. There are three variations of bandish, regarding tempo: Vilambit bandish: A slow and steady melodic composition, usually in largo to adagio speeds. Madhyalaya bandish: A medium tempo melodic competition, usually set in andante to allegretto speeds. Drut bandish: A fast tempo melodic composition, usually set to allegretto speed or faster. Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice. Types of compositions The major vocal forms or styles associated with Hindustani classical music are dhrupad, khyal, and tarana. Other forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, ashtapadis, thumri, dadra, ghazal and bhajan; these are folk or semi-classical or light classical styles, as they often do not adhere to the rigorous rules of classical music. Dhrupad Main article: Dhrupad Dhrupad is an old style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. It is performed with a tambura and a pakhawaj as instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages that was spoken in Eastern India. The rudra veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in instrumental music in dhrupad. Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively long and acyclic alap, where the syllables of the following mantra is recited: Om Anant tam Taran Tarini Twam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan. The alap gradually unfolds into more rhythmic jod and jhala sections. These sections are followed by a rendition of bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The great Indian musician Tansen sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter form of dhrupad, called dhamar, is sung primarily during the festival of Holi. Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago, when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more free-form style of singing. Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, dhrupad risked becoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. However, the efforts by a few proponents from the Dagar family have led to its revival and eventual popularization in India and in the West. Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of the Dagar lineage, including the senior Dagar brothers, Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin Dagar; the junior Dagar brothers, Nasir Zahiruddin and Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar; and Wasifuddin, Fariduddin, and Sayeeduddin Dagar. Other leading exponents include the Gundecha Brothers, who have received training from some of the Dagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family of Darbhanga tradition of musicians; some of the leading exponents of this tradition were Ram Chatur Mallick, Siyaram Tiwari, and Vidur Mallick. A section of dhrupad singers of Delhi Gharana from Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s court migrated to Bettiah under the patronage of the Bettiah Raj, giving rise to the Bettiah Gharana.[8] Bishnupur Gharana, based in West Bengal, is a key school that has been propagating this style of singing since Mughal times. Khyal Main article: Khyal Khyal is a Hindustani form of vocal music, adopted from medieval Persian music and based on Dhrupad. Khyal, literally meaning thought or imagination in Hindustani, is unusual as it is based on improvising and expressing emotion. A Khyal is a two- to eight-line lyric set to a melody. The lyric is of an emotional account possibly from poetic observation.[clarification needed] Khyals are also popular for depicting the emotions between two lovers, situations of ethological significance in Hinduism and Islam, or other situations evoking intense feelings. Th importance of the Khyals content is for the singer to depict, through music in the set raga, the emotional significance of the Khyal. The singer improvises and finds inspiration within the raga to depict the Khyal. The origination of Khyal is controversial, although it is accepted that this style was based on Dhrupad and influenced by Persian music. Many argue that Amir Khusrau created the style in the late 16th century. This form was popularized by Mughal Emperor Mohammad Shah, through his court musicians. Some well-known composers of this period were Sadarang, Adarang, and Manrang. [edit]Tarana Main article: Tarana Another vocal form, taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of a few lines of poetry with soft syllables or bols set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines as a basis for fast improvisation. The tillana of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, although the former is primarily associated with dance. Tappa Main article: Tappa Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music whose specialty is its rolling pace based on fast, subtle, knotty construction. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, a court singer for Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, the Nawab of Awadh. Nidhubabur Tappa, or tappas sung by Nidhu Babu were very popular in 18th and 19th-century Bengal. Among the living performers of this style are Laxmanrao Pandit, Shamma Khurana, Manvalkar, Girija Devi, Ishwarchandra Karkare, and Jayant Khot. Thumri Main article: Thumri Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, (r. 1847–1856). There are three types of thumri: poorab ang, Lucknavi and Punjabi thumri. The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic. Some recent performers of this genre are Abdul Karim Khan, the brothers Barkat Ali Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Girija Devi, Beauty Sharma Barua, Nazakat-Salamat Ali Khan, Prabha Atre, Siddheshwari Devi, and Shobha Gurtu. Ghazal Main article: Ghazal Ghazal is an originally Persian form of poetry. In the Indian sub-continent, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry is popular with multiple variations across Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Turkey, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including semi-classical, folk and pop forms. Instrumental music The Royal Musicians of Hindustan circa 1910: Ali Khan, Inayat Khan, Musheraff Khan and Maheboob Khan Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on the vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. In fact, in recent decades, especially outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is more popular than vocal music, partly due to a somewhat different style and faster tempo, and partly because of a language barrier for the lyrics in vocal music. A number of musical instruments are associated with Hindustani classical music. The veena, a string instrument, was traditionally regarded as the most important, but few play it today and it has largely been superseded by its cousins the sitar and the sarod, both of which owe their origin to Persian influences. Other plucked or struck string instruments include the surbahar, sursringar, santoor, and various versions of the slide guitar. Among bowed instruments, the sarangi, esraj and violin are popular. The bansuri, shehnai and harmonium are important wind instruments. In the percussion ensemble, the tabla and the pakhavaj are the most popular. Various other instruments have also been used in varying degrees.

Strategies to Lower Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions

Strategies to Lower Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions Carbon dioxide emissions from Annex I countries have established since 1990 but are growing rapidly in developing countries (non Annex I countries) at a rate of approximately 4% per year which is reflected in the world emissions which are growing roughly 600 million tons of CO2 per year. Carbon dioxide emissions are the dominant component of greenhouse gas emissions, but represented in 2006 only 69,6% of the total emissions. The remaining 30.4% are methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and fluorinated gases with high global warming potential (GWP) which are: SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), HFCs (hydrofluorcarbons) and PFCs (perfluorcarbons). (Figure 4). Usually one expresses GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. Total emissions in 2005 were approximately 45 Gtons of CO2.equivalent of which 30 Gtons of CO2. To reduce CO2 and other GHG emissions became thus one of the most urgent tasks we are facing today. There are two approaches to handle this problem: use energy more efficiently, consequently emitting less CO2 and extending the life of fossil fuels reserves. increase the contribution of renewable energies in the world energy matrix National governments as well as some sectors of the productive system (industry, transportation, residential and others) can adopt these solutions in differentiated degrees. In industrialized countries, which have already reached a high level of energy consumption per capita, energy efficiency is the low hanging fruit approach that can be more easily implemented. Renewable energies can also play a significant role. In developing countries where energy consumption per capita is low, and the need for the growth for energies services is inevitable, it can be done incorporating early, in the process of development, clean and efficient technologies as well as renewable energies, following a different path than that done in the past by todays industrialized countries We will discuss hereafter the potential of energy efficiency, renewable energies and emissions trading schemes in achieving the objectives of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. RENEWABLE ENERGIES Table I lists the renewable energy used in the world at the end of 2008 by all types of renewable sources, as well their yearly growth rates. Traditional biomass is left out of this table because it is used mainly in rural areas as cooking fuel or charcoal in ways that are frequently non renewable, leading to deforestation and soil degradation Renewables (including large hydro) represented, in 2008, approximately 5% of the world?s total primary energy consumption but are growing at a rate of 6.3% per year while total primary energy supply is growing at a smaller rate of approximately 2% per year. Taking into account the appropriate efficiency and capacity factors* the numbers in Table I can be converted into the total primary energy contribution from renewables (Table II) and Figure 6. An extrapolation of the contribution of renewables up to 2030 on the basis of the rates of growth in the last 10 years is shown in Figure 7. To give an idea of the effort that would be needed to curb CO2 emissions up to 2050 the IEA produced recently two scenarios of what would be required in terms of renewables in the electricity sector. The results are shown in Table III. In the IEA Scenarios nuclear energy and coal and gas fired thermal power plants (with carbon capture and storage CCS) are included. These numbers are very large but give an idea of the effort required to prevent a catastrophic climate change. The main policy instruments used to accelerate the introduction of renewables in the energy system of a number of countries are feed in tariffs and renewable portfolio standards (RPS) Feed-in tariffs: this is a policy adopted by governments to accelerate the introduction of renewable energy sources in their matrixes. Power companies are obliged to buy renewable energy from independent producers, at a fixed price above the average cost of production. These incremental costs of renewable energy over fossil fuels can be transferred to consumers. Germany has had striking success with feed-in tariffs over the last two decades, supplying 15% of its energy needs through renewable sources. The German approach involves guaranteed fixed payments for 20 years designed to deliver a profit of 7 to 9 percent. The rates charged vary by energy source and are tied to the cost of production. The rates paid for new contracts decline annually, forcing the green energy sector to innovate. Renewable Portfolio Standards: such approach places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources (typically 10-20%). Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies. RPS-type mechanisms have been adopted in the UK, Italy and Belgium, as well as in 27 States in the US and the District of Columbia. Regulations vary from state to state, and there is no federal policy. Four of the 27 states have voluntary rather than mandatory goals. Together these 27 states account for more than 42 percent of the electricity sales in the country. Renewable energies are being introduced in a significant way in many countries particularly in Europe in the form of distributed generation* ( ) (mostly renewable) which seems to be the approach to be used in large scale in the future. (Figure 8) ENERGY EFFICIENCY The amount of energy required to provide the energy services needed depends on the efficiency with which the energy is produced, delivered and used. Gains in energy efficiency are usually measured by indicators, one of which is called energy intensity and defined as the energy necessary (E) per unit of gross domestic product (GDP). I = E/GDP Reduction in the energy intensity over time indicate that the same amount of GDP is obtained with a smaller energy input as shown in Figure 9. In terms of CO2 emissions for the OECD countries means a reduction of emissions of roughly 350 million tons of CO2 per year. The reasons for such decline are a combination of the following factors. structural changes in industrialized and transition countries which can come from increased recycling and substitution of energy-intensive materials improved material efficiency and intensified use of durable and investment goods, shifts to services and less energy-intensive industrial production, and saturation effects in the residential and transportation sectors (i.e., a limit to the number of cars, refrigerators, television sets, etc., that a society can absorb). Since more than 80% of the energy used in the world today comes from fossil fuels the reduction in energy intensity is reflected in a reduction in carbon intensity (I=CO2/GDP) which is shown in Figure 11. As can be seem there is a steady decline in the carbon intensity in OECD countries. In non-OECD countries there was also a decline but it has stabilized after the year 2000. Over the next twenty years the amount of primary energy required for a given level of energy services could be cost-effectively reduced by 25 to 35 percent in industrialized countries. Reductions of more than 40 percent are cost-effectively achievable in transitional economies within the next two decades. In most developing countries ? which tend to have high economic growth and old capital and vehicle stocks ? the cost-effective improvement potential ranges from 30 to more than 45 percent, relative to energy efficiencies achieved with existing capital stock. The combined result of structural changes and efficiency improvements could accelerate the annual decline in energy intensity to perhaps 2.5 percent. How much of this potential will be realized depends on the effectiveness of policy frameworks and measures, changes in attitude and behavior, as well as the level of entrepreneurial activity in energy conservation and material efficiency. Standards (e.g., building codes; well-informed consumers, planners, and decision makers; motivated operators; market-based incentives such as certificate markets; and an adequate payments system ( ) for energy) are central to the successful implementation of energy efficiency improvements. EMISSIONS TRADING In addition to national efforts to curb GHG emissions through increased energy efficiency measures and the use of renewable energy source trading emissions is a strategy used to control pollution by providing incentive s for achieving reductions in the emission of pollutants. Usually it is called a ?cap and trade? system and the way is works is the following: A central authority (usually a government or international body) sets a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. Companies or other groups are issued emission permits and are required to hold an equivalent number of allowances (or credits) which represent the right to emit a specific amount. The total amount of allowances and credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level. Companies that need to increase their emission allowances must buy credits from those who pollute less. The transfer of allowances is referred to as a trade. In effect, the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced emissions. An early example of an emission trading system has been the SO2 trading system under the framework of the Acid Rain Program of the 1990 Clean Air Act in the U.S. Under the program, which is essentially a cap-and-trade emissions trading system, SO2 emissions were reduced by 50 percent from 1980 leve ls by 2007. Some experts argue that the cap and trade system of SO2 emissions reduction has reduced the cost of controlling acid rain by as much as 80 percent versus source-by-source reduction?.( ) At the international level the Kyoto Protocol (KP) adopted in 1997 and which came into force in 2005, binds most developed nations to a cap and trade system for the six major greenhouse gases. In spite of being a signatory of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United States is the only industrialized nation (i.e., under the KP Annex I) which has not ratified and therefore is not bound by it. Emission quotas were agreed by each participating country, with the intention of reducing their overall emissions by 5.2% of their 1990 levels by the end of 2012. Under the Treaty, for the 5-year compliance period from 2008 until 2012, nations that emit less than their quota will be able to sell emission credits to nations that exceed their quota through use of the following flexibility mechanisms: Joint Implementation projects (JI) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) International Emissions Trading (IET). The second commitment period of the KP, together with a long-term cooperative action under the UNFCCC, will be discussed by nations at the end of 2009. THE EUROPEAN UNION EMISSIONS TRADING SCHEME (EU ETS) The European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS) is the largest multi-national, emissions trading scheme in the world, and is a major pillar of EU climate policy. Under the EU ETS, the governments of the EU Member States agree on national emission caps which have to be approved by the EU commission, allocate allowances to their industrial operators, track and validate the actual emissions in accordance against the relevant assigned amount. In the first phase (2005-2007), the EU ETS includes some 12,000 installations, representing approximately 40% of EU CO2 emissions, (2.4 billion tons of CO2 equivalent) covering energy activities (combustion installations with a rated thermal input exceeding 20 MW, mineral oil refineries, coke ovens, production and processing of ferrous metals, mineral industry (cement clinker, glass and ceramic bricks) and pulp, paper and board activities. The scheme, in which all 15 member states that were then members of the European Union participated, nominally commenced operation on January 1st, 2005, although national registries were unable to settle transactions for the first few months. The first trading period of the EU ETS ran for three years, from January 1st, 2005 until the end of 2007. With its termination first phase allowances became invalid. The goal of the trial period was primarily to gain experience with key elements of the trading system in order to have a fully operational system for 2008-2012 when compliance with binding reductions would be required under the Kyoto Protocol. (Table IV) The price of allowances increased more or less steadily to its peak level in April 2006 of about ?30 per tonne CO2, but fell in May 2006 to under ?10/ton on news that some countries were likely to give their industries such generous emission caps that there was no need for them to reduce emissions. When the publication of 2005 verified emissions data in May 2006 highlighted this over-allocation, the market reacted by substantially lowering the price of allowances. Prices dropped precipitously to ?1.2 a tonne in March 2007, declining to ?0.10 in September 2007, because allowances could not be carried over or ?banked? and used in the next trading period. Although the first phase ended disastrously, because the allowances could not be banked to the next phase, it did not impact on the prices for contracts for 2008, the first year of the second phase. Market participants knew already in 2007 that phase II would be more stringent in relation to the cap and less lenient in relation to allowances, which explains the high prices for 2008 allowances. The first EU ETS Trading Period expired in December 2007. Since January 2008, the second Trading Period is under way which will last until December 2012. Currently, the installations get the allowances for free from the EU member states governments. Besides receiving this initial allocation on a plant-by-plant basis, an operator may purchase EU allowances from others (installations, traders, the government). In January 2008, the European Commission proposed a number of changes to the scheme, including centralized allocation (no more national allocation plans) by an EU authority, a turn to auctioning a greater share (60+ %) of permits rather than allocating freely, and inclusion of other greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide and per-fluorocarbons. These changes are still in a draft stage; the mentioned amendments are only likely to become effective from January 2013 onwards, i.e. in the third Trading Period under the EU ETS. Also, the proposed caps for the third Trading Period foresee an overall reduction of greenhouse gases for the sector of 21% in 2020 compared to 2005 emissions. The EU ETS has recently been extended to the airline industry as well, but these changes will not take place until 2012. In addition, the third trading period will be both more economically efficient and environmentally effective. It will be more efficient because trading periods will be longer (8 years instead of 5 years), and a substantial increase in the amount of auctioning (from less than 4% in phase 2 to more than half in phase 3). The environmental effectiveness will be guaranteed by a robust and annually declining emissions cap (21% reduction in 2020 compared to 2005) and a centralized allocation process within the European Commission. A robust secondary market for carbon certificates exists through which investors bank on the future value of the EU ETS certificates changing many times. However the ETS doesn?t include transport, thus this action is limited to industrial process and energy sector. JOINT IMPLEMENTATION (JI) Joint implementation is one of flexibility mechanisms set forth in the Kyoto Protocol to help countries with binding greenhouse gas emissions targets (so-called Annex I countries) meet their obligations. In this mechanism any Annex I countries can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as Joint Implementation Projects) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically. In this way countries can lower the costs of complying with their Kyoto targets by investing in greenhouse gas reductions in an Annex I country where reductions are cheaper, and then applying the credit for those reductions towards their commitment goal. The process of receiving credit for JI projects is somewhat complex. Emission reductions are awarded credits called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs), where one ERU represents an emission reduction equaling one tonne of CO2 equivalent. The ERUs come from the host countrys pool of assigned emissions credits, known as Assigned Amount Units, or AAUs ( ). After a long preparatory process JI projects began to take shape. As of June 2009, 207 projects have been submitted. If all implemented they will lead to emissions reduction of 338,048 million times CO2 equivalent in the period 2008-2012. The great majority of the projects are in the Russian Federation and Eastern European countries. The number of JI projects by type is given in Figure 14. So far the only certificates issued (ERUs) emissions reduction units are 651 thousand CO2 equivalent for coal bed/mine methane. CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialized countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment (called Annex B countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. A crucial feature of an approved CDM carbon project is that it has established that the planned reductions would not occur without the additional incentive provided by emission reductions credits, a concept known as additionality. The CDM allows net global greenhouse gas emissions to be reduced at a much lower global cost by financing emissions reduction projects in developing countries where costs are lower than in industrialized countries. The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board (CDM EB) and is under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties (COP/MOP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). By June 1 2009, 4,417 projects have been submitted which if all implemented correspond to 2,931,813 million tons of CO2 equivalent. It represents roughly 1% of the total necessary effort to curb GHG emissions until 2050. Roughly 75% of the CDM projects are in China. In contrast to emissions trading schemes which are actively traded in the stock market JI and CDM are project-based transaction. THE STIMULUS PACKAGE A significant amount of the stimulus package adopted by a number of governments to face the financial crisis of 2007/2008 is made of investments in so called ?green? activities. They amount to 6% of the total recovery packages announced by governments (US$184.9billion dollars). (Figure 17) China and the US remain the leaders, in nominal terms, of the green stimuli activities, earmarking US$ 68.7 billion and US$ 66.6 billion respectively. The sector break-down shows that energy efficiency (Figure 18) remains at the heart of the low-carbon fiscal stimuli. Accounting for as much as 36% of the total US$ 184.9 billion, the sector will receive a boost of some US$ 65.7 billion globally, mainly via building efficiency projects. In addition to that, US$ 7.9 billion has been announced for research and development in energy efficiency. The second major winner is electricity grid infrastructure. More than US$ 48.7 billion has been earmarked for its development and upgrade, accounting for some 26% of the total funds. The Department of Energy has already disbursed US$ 41.9 million in grants for fuel cell energy projects. Furthermore, US$ 101.5 million has been directed to wind energy research and detailed plans have been disclosed on US$ 2.4 billion to be spent on carbon capture and storage and US$ 4 billion for grid upgrades. Details of almost US$ 1.3 billion, out of US$ 2 billion to support energy science research, have also been confirmed and there are now only some US$ 725 million remaining to be allocated.